Dog Training Science Resources

The scientific evidence on dog training, conveniently located in one place, with links to research papers and blog posts.

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If you are interested in the science of dog training, this is the place to start. This page includes links to scientific research studies on pet dog training and related topics, as well as links to places where you can read about those studies (including coverage on this blog and elsewhere). So if you aren't sure if you want to read the full academic paper, you can read a summary first.

The first section lists scientific research on dog training methods (positive reinforcement vs aversives, shock collars etc). The second section looks at other aspects of the science of dog training (body language, preference for types of positive reinforcement, etc).

This page is updated regularly. If you have suggestions for additions, please send an email (companimalpsych at gmail dot com). 

If you want to start with a summary of the research on dog training methods, you might like seven reasons to use reward-based dog training. And if you want to know more about the practical aspects of how to train a dog, start with my user-friendly guide to positive reinforcement in dog training.

There is now also a sister page on the science of cat training.

You might also like my book Wag: The Science of Making Your Dog Happy, which discusses this research (and its implications) along with practical tips to help you with your dog. And if your dog is fearful, check out my new book, Bark! The Science of Helping Your Anxious, Fearful, or Reactive Dog, which is available for pre-order now.

This page contains affiliate links.

Scientific Research on Dog Training Methods

Arhant, C., Bubna-Littitz, H., Bartels, A., Futschik, A., & Troxler, J. (2010). Behaviour of smaller and larger dogs: Effects of training methods, inconsistency of owner behaviour and level of engagement in activities with the dog Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 123 (3-4), 131-142 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2010.01.003

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive Reinforcement in Dog Training: Little Dogs vs Big Dogs
• Also included in the summary of the series on positive reinforcement and dog training

Blackwell, E., Bolster, C., Richards, G., Loftus, B., & Casey, R. (2012). The use of electronic collars for training domestic dogs: estimated prevalence, reasons and risk factors for use, and owner perceived success as compared to other training methods BMC Veterinary Research, 8 (1) DOI: 10.1186/1746-6148-8-93

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: How Many People Use Electronic Shock Collars?

Blackwell, E., Twells, C., Seawright, A., & Casey, R. (2008). The relationship between training methods and the occurrence of behavior problems, as reported by owners, in a population of domestic dogs Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 3 (5), 207-217 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2007.10.008

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive Reinforcement and Dog Training
• Also included in the summary of the series on positive reinforcement and dog training

Casey, R., Loftus, B., Bolster, C., Richards, G., & Blackwell, E. (2014). Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 152, 52-63 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2013.12.003

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Dangerous Dogs: Time for a Rethink?
• and on Dr. Rachel Casey's blog:  Aggressive behaviour in dogs: a survey of UK dog owners
• and by Stanley Coren, PhD: Dog aggression is predicted by training methods and breed

Casey, R. A., Naj-Oleari, M., Campbell, S., Mendl, M., & Blackwell, E. J. (2021). Dogs are more pessimistic if their owners use two or more aversive training methods. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 1-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-97743-0

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at The Pawsitive Post Issue No. 9

China, L., Mills, D.S. & Cooper, J.J. (2020) Efficacy of dog training with and without remote electronic collars vs. a focus on positive reinforcement. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2020.00508.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive reinforcement is more effective at training dogs than an electronic collar, study shows
• Covered by Linda Lombardi at Fear Free Pets: Electronic collars versus positive reinforcement

Cooper, J. J., Cracknell, N., Hardiman, J., Wright, H., & Mills, D. (2014). The welfare consequences and efficacy of training pet dogs with remote electronic training collars in comparison to reward based training. PloS one, 9(9), e102722.

Defra AW1402 (2013) Studies to assess the effect of pet training aids, specifically remote static pulse systems, on the welfare of domestic dogs. University of Lincoln / University of Bristol / Food and Environment Research Agency.  Final report prepared by Prof. Jonathan Cooper, Dr. Hannah Wright, Prof. Daniel Mills (University of Lincoln); Dr. Rachel Casey, Dr. Emily Blackwell (University of Bristol); Katja van Driel (Food and Environment Research Agency); Dr. Jeff Lines (Silsoe Livestock System).

Defra AW1402a (2013) Studies to assess the effect of pet training aids, specifically remote static pulse systems, on the welfare of domestic dogs; field study of dogs in training. Final report prepared by Prof. Jonathan Cooper, Dr. Nina Cracknell, Jessica Hardiman and Prof. Daniel Mills (University of Lincoln).

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: The End for Shock Collars?

Deldalle, S., & Gaunet, F. (2014). Effects of 2 training methods on stress-related behaviors of the dog (Canis familiaris) and on the dog–owner relationship Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 9 (2), 58-65 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2013.11.004

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Dog Training,  Animal Welfare, and the Human-Canine Relationship
• and by Stanley Coren, PhD: Is punishment an effective way to change the behavior of dogs?

Dodman, N. H., Brown, D. C., & Serpell, J. A. (2018). Associations between owner personality and psychological status and the prevalence of canine behavior problems. PloS one, 13(2), e0192846.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Psychology Today: Does owner personality affect dog training methods? 

Dubé, M. B., Asher, L., Würbel, H., Riemer, S., & Melotti, L. (2020). Parallels in the interactive effect of highly sensitive personality and social factors on behaviour problems in dogs and humans. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-62094-9

Fernandes, J. G., Olsson, I. A. S., & de Castro, A. C. V. (2017). Do aversive-based training methods actually compromise dog welfare?: A literature review. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2017.07.001

Fernandez, E. J. (2022). Training as enrichment: A critical review. Animal Welfare, 31(1), 1-12. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7120/09627286.31.1.001

Haverbeke, A., Laporte, B., Depiereux, E., Giffroy, J., & Diederich, C. (2008). Training methods of military dog handlers and their effects on the team's performances Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 113 (1-3), 110-122 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.11.010

• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: The effect of training methods on the efficiency of learning

Herron, M., Shofer, F., & Reisner, I. (2009). Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 117 (1-2), 47-54 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2008.12.011

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive Reinforcement and Dog Training: Dogs with Behaviour Problems and in the summary of this series on positive reinforcement
• and Science Daily: If you're aggressive, your dog will be too
• and Dr. Sophia Yin
• and Patricia McConnell, PhD, CAAB: Confrontational techniques elicit aggression

Hiby, E.F., Rooney, N.J., & Bradshaw, J.W.S. (2004). Dog training methods: their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare Animal Welfare (13), 63-69

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive Reinforcement and Dog Training II
• Also included in the summary of the series on positive reinforcement and dog training

Masson, S., de la Vega, S., Gazzano, A., Mariti, C., Pereira, G. D. G., Halsberghe, C., ... & Schoening, B. (2018). Electronic training devices: discussion on the pros and cons of their use in dogs as a basis for the position statement of the European Society of Veterinary Clinical Ethology (ESVCE). Journal of Veterinary Behavior. DOI; https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.02.006

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Study outlines reasons to ban electronic collars for dogs
• Covered by Mark Bekoff, PhD: Is it time to ban shock collars for dogs in all situations?

Masson, S., Nigron, I., & Gaultier, E. (2018). Questionnaire Survey on The Use Of Different E-Collar Types in France in Everyday Life With A View To Providing Recommendations for Possible Future Regulations. Journal of Veterinary Behavior.

• Covered by Kerry Lengyel at American Veterinarian: Study shows no credible evidence justifying electronic shock collars.
• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Shock collars, regulation and education on alternatives

Overall, K. L. (2018). Beware the misdirection offense: the truth about shock, aversives and punishment. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 25, iv-vi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2018.04.005

Rooney, N., & Cowan, S. (2011). Training methods and owner–dog interactions: Links with dog behaviour and learning ability Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 132 (3-4), 169-177 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.03.007

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Positive Reinforcement and Dog Training: Learning New Behaviours
• Also included in the summary of the series on positive reinforcement and dog training

Schalke, E., Stichnoth, J., Ott, S., & Jones-Baade, R. (2007). Clinical signs caused by the use of electric training collars on dogs in everyday life situations Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 105 (4), 369-380 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.11.002

Schilder, M., & van der Borg, J. (2004). Training dogs with help of the shock collar: short and long term behavioural effects Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 85 (3-4), 319-334 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2003.10.004

• Covered by Dr. Sophia Yin: Are shock collars painful or just annoying to dogs? A 2004 study reveals some answers

Todd, Z. (2018). Barriers to the Adoption of Humane Dog Training Methods. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research.  25C(28-34). Available for free via this link until 9th June.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Why don't more people use positive reinforcement to train dogs? 

Vieira de Castro, A. C., Barrett, J., de Sousa, L., & Olsson, I. A. S. (2019). Carrots versus sticks: The relationship between training methods and dog-owner attachment. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 219, 104831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2019.104831

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Dog training methods affect attachment to the owner
• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: How training methods affect a dogs attachment to its owner

Vieira de Castro, A. C., Fuchs, D., Morello, G. M., Pastur, S., de Sousa, L., & Olsson, I. A. S. (2020). Does training method matter? Evidence for the negative impact of aversive-based methods on companion dog welfare. Plos one, 15(12), e0225023.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: New study shows dogs trained with rewards only are more optimistic
• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: Does it matter whether dog training is positive or aversive?

Ziv, G. (2017) The effects of using aversive training methods in dogs – a review. Journal of Veterinary Behaviour, 19:50-60.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: New Literature Review Recommends Reward-Based Training
• Guest post by Zazie Todd, PhD at the Academy for Dog Trainers: The Double Advantage of Reward-Based Training. 

Other Scientific Research on Dog Training

Affenzeller, N., Palme, R., & Zulch, H. (2017). Playful activity post-learning improves training performance in Labrador Retriever dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) Physiology & Behavior, 168, 62-73 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.10.014

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Playtime after training improves a dog's memory
• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: What dogs do after training affects how much they remember
• Covered by Julie Hecht at DogSpies: Memory wins when dogs sleep

Bremhorst, A., Bütler, S., Würbel, H., & Riemer, S. (2018). Incentive motivation in pet dogs–preference for constant vs varied food rewards. Scientific reports, 8(1), 9756. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28079-5

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: In training, pay your dog with the food or foods they love, science says

Browne, C. M., Starkey, N. J., Foster, T. M., & McEwan, J. S. (2017). Examination of the Accuracy and Applicability of Information in Popular Books on Dog Training. Brill. DOI: 10.1163/15685306-12341453

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Can dog training books be trusted?

Carter, Anne J., Donal S. McNally, and Roshier, Amanda L., (2020). "Canine collars: an investigation of collar type and the forces applied to a simulated neck model." Veterinary Record.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Flat collars risk damage to dogs' necks
• Covered by Anne Carter, PhD: Getting hot under the collar--allowing your dog to pull on a collar and lead could be causing damage and increase their risk of heat stroke

Chapagain, D., Virányi, Z., Wallis, L. J., Huber, L., Serra, J., & Range, F. (2017). Aging of attentiveness in border collies and other pet dog breeds: the protective benefits of lifelong training. Frontiers in aging neuroscience, 9, 100.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Dogs' attention declines with age - but training helps 

Chiandetti, C., Avella, S., Fongaro, E., & Cerri, F. (2016). Can clicker training facilitate conditioning in dogs? Applied Animal Behaviour Science DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2016.08.006

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Clicker Training vs Treat: Equally Good in Dog Training

D’Aniello, B., Scandurra, A., Alterisio, A., Valsecchi, P., & Prato-Previde, E. (2016). The importance of gestural communication: a study of human–dog communication using incongruent information Animal Cognition DOI: 10.1007/s10071-016-1010-5

• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: Are voice commands or hand signals more effective for dogs? 

Demant, H., Ladewig, J., Balsby, T., & Dabelsteen, T. (2011). The effect of frequency and duration of training sessions on acquisition and long-term memory in dogs Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 133 (3-4), 228-234 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2011.05.010

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: How Often Should I Train My Dog?

Dinwoodie, I. R., Zottola, V., & Dodman, N. H. (2021). An investigation into the effectiveness of various professionals and behavior modification programs, with or without medication, for the treatment of canine aggression. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 43, 46-53.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2021.02.002

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at The Pawsitive Post Issue No. 28

Feng, L. C., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C. (2016). How clicker training works: Comparing reinforcing, marking, and bridging hypotheses. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 181, 34-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2016.05.012


Feng LC, Howell TJ, Bennett PC. (2017) Comparing trainers’ reports of clicker use to the use of clickers in applied research studies: methodological differences may explain conflicting results. Pet Behavior Science 2017; 3:1-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21071/pbs.v0i3.5786

• Covered by Lynna Feng: The Clicker Training Controversy
• Covered by Linda P. Case: Why we click

Feng, L. C., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C. (2018). Practices and perceptions of clicker use in dog training: A survey-based investigation of dog owners and industry professionals. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 23, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2017.10.002

Feng, L. C., Hodgens, N. H., Woodhead, J. K., Howell, T. J., & Bennett, P. C. (2018). Is clicker training (Clicker+ food) better than food-only training for novice companion dogs and their owners?. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2018.04.015

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Clicker-plus-food and food-only are equally good dog training methods

Feuerbacher, E., & Wynne, C. (2012). Relative efficacy of human social interaction and food as reinforcers for domestic dogs and hand-reared wolves Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 98 (1), 105-129 DOI: 10.1901/jeab.2012.98-105

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Now Where's My Treat?

Feuerbacher, E. N., & Wynne, C. D. (2014). Most domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) prefer food to petting: population, context, and schedule effects in concurrent choice. Journal of the experimental analysis of behavior, 101(3), 385-405. DOI: 10.1002/jeab.81.


Fugazza, C., & Miklósi, A. (2014). Should old dog trainers learn new tricks? The efficiency of the Do as I do method and shaping/clicker training method to train dogs Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 153, 53-61 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2014.01.009

• Covered by Claudia Fugazza for Do You Believe in Dog?: Do As I Do: Copy cat social imitation in dog training

Fukuzawa, M., & Hayashi, N. (2013). Comparison of 3 different reinforcements of learning in dogs (Canis familiaris) Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 8 (4), 221-224 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2013.04.067

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: The Importance of Food in Dog Training

Gibsone, S., McBride, E. A., Redhead, E. S., Cameron, K. E., & Bizo, L. A. (2021). The effectiveness of visual and auditory elements of a compound stimulus in controlling behavior in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris). Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 46, 87-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2021.08.001

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at The Pawsitive Post Issue No. 25

Hasegawa M, Ohtani N, & Ohta M (2014). Dogs' Body Language Relevant to Learning Achievement. Animals : an open access journal from MDPI, 4 (1), 45-58 PMID: 26479883

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: The Attentive Look of a Dog in Training

Jakovcevic A, Elgier AM, Mustaca AE, & Bentosela M (2013). Frustration behaviors in domestic dogs. Journal of applied animal welfare science : JAAWS, 16 (1), 19-34 PMID: 23282291

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Frustration in Pet Dog Training

Karl, S., Boch, M., Virányi, Z., Lamm, C., & Huber, L. (2019). Training pet dogs for eye-tracking and awake fMRI. Behavior Research Methods, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01281-7


Kis A, Szakadát S, Gácsi M, Kovács E, Simor P, Török C, Gombos F, Bódizs R, & Topál J (2017). The interrelated effect of sleep and learning in dogs (Canis familiaris); an EEG and behavioural study. Scientific reports, 7 PMID: 28165489

• Covered by Julie Hecht at DogSpies: Memory wins when dogs sleep

Kutsumi A, Nagasawa M, Ohta M, & Ohtani N (2013). Importance of puppy training for future behavior of the dog. The Journal of veterinary medical science / the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science, 75 (2), 141-9 PMID: 23018794

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Is it Important to Attend Puppy Class?

LaFollette, M. R., Rodriguez, K. E., Ogata, N., & O'Haire, M. E. (2019). Military veterans and their PTSD service dogs: associations between training methods, PTSD severity, dog behavior, and the human-animal bond. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 6:23.

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Fellow Creatures on Psych Today: Training methods affect the service dog-veteran relationship
• Covered by Linda Case: Reward-based training and relationship

McGowan RT, Rehn T, Norling Y, & Keeling LJ (2014). Positive affect and learning: exploring the "Eureka Effect" in dogs. Animal cognition, 17 (3), 577-87 PMID: 24096703

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Do Dogs Get That Eureka! Feeling?

Meyer, I., & Ladewig, J. (2008). The relationship between number of training sessions per week and learning in dogs Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 111 (3-4), 311-320 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.06.016

• Covered by Patricia McConnell, PhD, CAAB: What's a "better learning performance?"

Okamoto Y, Ohtani N, Uchiyama H, & Ohta M (2009). The feeding behavior of dogs correlates with their responses to commands. The Journal of veterinary medical science / the Japanese Society of Veterinary Science, 71 (12), 1617-21 PMID: 20046029

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: The Importance of Food in Dog Training

Payne, E., Bennett, P., & McGreevy, P. (2017). DogTube: An examination of dogmanship online Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 17, 50-61 DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2016.10.006

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Timing and attention matter in dog training, new study shows

Riemer, S., Ellis, S. L., Thompson, H., & Burman, O. H. (2018). Reinforcer effectiveness in dogs—The influence of quantity and quality. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 206:87-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2018.05.016

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Do dogs run faster for more treats or better quality treats?

Scandurra, A., Alterisio, A., Aria, M., Vernese, R., & D’Aniello, B. (2018). Should I fetch one or the other? A study on dogs on the object choice in the bimodal contrasting paradigm. Animal cognition, 1-8. DOI: 10.1007/s10071-017-1145-z

• Covered by Sienna Taylor, MSc, in a guest post for Companion Animal Psychology: To gesture or not to gesture in dog training?
• Covered by Stanley Coren, PhD: Do dogs respond more accurately to words or gestures?

Siracusa, C., Provoost, L., & Reisner, I. R. (2017). Dog-and owner-related risk factors for consideration of euthanasia or rehoming before a referral behavioral consultation and for euthanizing or rehoming the dog after the consultation. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 22, 46-56. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jveb.2017.09.007

Smith, S., & Davis, E. (2008). Clicker increases resistance to extinction but does not decrease training time of a simple operant task in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 110 (3-4), 318-329 DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2007.04.012


Williams, E. J., & Blackwell, E. (2019). Managing the Risk of Aggressive Dog Behavior: Investigating the Influence of Owner Threat and Efficacy Perceptions. Risk Analysis. https://doi.org/10.1111/risa.13336

• Covered by Zazie Todd PhD at Companion Animal Psychology: Confidence and emotions affect people's use of positive reinforcement to train reactive dogs.
• Covered by Marc Bekoff, PhD: "Bad dog?" The psychology and importance of using positive reinforcement
• Covered by Linda Lombardi at Fear Free: Owner perceptions influence training methods

Woodward, J. L., Casey, R. A., Lord, M. S., Kinsman, R. H., Da Costa, R. E., Knowles, T. G., ... & Murray, J. K. (2021). Factors influencing owner-reported approaches to training dogs enrolled in the Generation Pup longitudinal study. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 242, 105404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2021.105404 

This page was last updated on 16th January 2023.

Zazie Todd, PhD, is the award-winning author of Wag: The Science of Making Your Dog Happy and the forthcoming Purr: The Science of Making Your Cat Happy. She is the creator of the popular blog, Companion Animal Psychology, writes The Pawsitive Post premium newsletter, and also has a column at Psychology Today. Todd lives in Maple Ridge, BC, with her husband, one dog, and two cats. 

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